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From 1793 to 1801, Toussaint Louverture appointed himself as the highest authority in the French colony of St. Domingue (current day Haiti). When he presented himself as the head of the rebellion, in the Camp Turel Proclamation on August 13, 1793, Toussaint Louverture clearly showed his political agenda declaring: “I want liberty and equality to reign throughout St. Domingue.” From this day, he promised to defeat enemies from within and from without in order to become the sole chief in the territory. He fought for Spain, he fought against France, he fought against Spain, he fought for France, he directly opposed England. Time and time again, he positioned himself with various countries according to how independence for the colony was prioritized in that country’s agenda.

Beginning in 1794, Toussaint took on a firm position with France which he referred to as “La mère patrie” or “the mother country.” However, at every turn, he showed France that he would not simply be a servant. Every French representative in the colony, Toussaint found a way to oppose them and have them sent back to France. Not only did he disparage France’s representatives, he also applied the mother country’s rules however he pleased. This is why many experts believe that Toussaint wanted to force France to accept St. Domingue as an associated state. This is a model that would not be adopted until 150 years later for the colonies that were still dependants of France, England, Netherlands etc. Experts who believe this say that Toussaint Louverture was ahead of his time, and his ideas were too progressive for the period he lived in. But is this really all that Toussaint Louverture wanted for Haiti? Was it not in Toussaint Louverture’s vision for Haiti to become an independent nation?

Is this really all that Toussaint Louverture wanted for Haiti? Was it not in Toussaint Louverture’s vision for Haiti to become an independent nation?

There are several characteristics that make up an independent country. There are four elements in building a nation that were central to Toussaint Louverture’s strategy that we can analyze: constitution, military, diplomacy, and economy.

Constitution

A constitution establishes the existence of a nation. It is the birth certificate of a country. In 1801, two months after taking control of Santo Domingo (the Spanish controlled portion of the island), after sitting as the supreme chief of the entire territory, Toussaint Louverture called an assembly to create a constitution. On July 7, 1801, the first constitution in all of Latin America was published in St. Domingue.

The Constitution of 1801 is clear on the topics of liberty and equality. It guarantees the equality of races, equal opportunity, and equal protection under the law. It states that every person has the same rights, no matter the color of their skin and social origin. As for liberty, article three of the constitution says, “there will be no slave [in St. Domingue], slaves are abolished forever. Every person is born, lives, and dies free as a French citizen.” In this constitution, you will find Toussaint Louverture’s ideals. It served to fulfill the Camp Turel Proclamation. While presenting this constitution to the people, Toussaint Louverture declared, “My fellow citizens, no matter your age, your social class, or your color, you are free. This constitution  that [the assembly] has submitted to me today, it is here to preserve this freedom forever.”

It is important to note the liberationist nature of Toussaint Louverture’s action here. He published this fundamental law, which guaranteed liberty and equality, without the permission of the supposed “mother country”, France. In addition to this, he decided what political regime should be established in the colony, without France’s say in the matter. This constitution gave Toussaint Louverture all power. It named him the general governor for life. And Toussaint Louverture had the power to choose his successor.

It was clear that France would no longer have any say in St. Domingue’s future. It was an act of independence, even if the constitution did state that St. Domingue was France’s land. With this constitution, there are two things that are clear about Toussaint Louverture’s vision: people in the colony were to be free, everything concerning this land should be decided on this land.

Diplomacy

A state’s ability  to defend its interests in international affairs; its ability to establish peace or break ties with other countries, can determine whether a country is an independent state or not.  Toussaint Louverture took the role of chief diplomat quite seriously.

In 1798, Toussaint initiated negotiations with the American president, John Adams to lift an embargo that the United States had imposed on French colonies.  The negotiations were successful. In February 1799, the American congress lifted the embargo for some French colonies. But it was clear that the embargo was not lifted for some French colonies, it was only lifted for St. Domingue. This is why, historians refer to this decision as the “Toussaint Clause.”

After confronting the English in battle, Toussaint initiated negotiations for England to evacuate Jeremie and Mol Saint Nicholas without a single gunshot.  Toussaint and General Maintland signed a secret agreement on August 31, 1798. This decision angered the French because France was in conflict with the United States and England at the time.  Further, no colony had the right to initiate diplomatic negotiations on behalf of France. In assuming diplomatic representation of Saint Domingue, Toussaint was sending a clear message to France.

Economy

Many people forget that the phrase “Haiti, the pearl of the Antilles” refers to France’s bloody exploitation of Africans and their descendants in the colony. Haiti was never the “Pearl of the Antilles” for Haitians, but it was the greatest source of profit among all of France’s colonies in the Antilles. This “Pearl of the Antilles” was for France. This situation began to change when the slave uprisings began. Toussaint’s challenge was to make Haiti “the Pearl of the Antilles”, but this time for the people who lived in it.

Beginning in 1791, a lot of the dynamics in the colony changed. From time to time, insurrections would arise koupe tèt, boule kay (cut off their heads, burn down their houses) was the only way to force the colonists to listen to reason. The destruction of plantations was a key strategy in the quest for independence. Many colonists who had built plantations on the island, fled to Cuba and New Orleans. From 1794, slavery no longer existed in the colony. The newly freed people, those born enslaved and those kidnapped from Africa, did not want to return to working the earth. Slavery made work lose its value, especially agricultural work.

Toussaint Louverture encouraged citizens to work the earth so that they can “disprove the enemies of liberty who think that black people are not ready to live free.” Since this discourse was fruitless, he decided to use a different strategy.

To help the economy, Toussaint Louverture adopted a series of measures that are widely contested. He ordered the military to arrest anyone who refused to work. He adopted a law that punished vagrancy. To make matters worse, citizens were made to return to work on the same plantations where they were enslaved prior to the revolution. As for the white Europeans, their goal was to still maintain their plantations. However now, workers were to be compensated, and plantation owners were to pay taxes to the authorities.

This agrarian militarism allowed the economy of the territory to grow strong. Toussaint, while preaching his love for France, decided to reject the principle that designated all things produced in the colonies as the property of France. This is what they called in France “Le colbertisme.” He decided to open up the ports to trade with the United States and England. This had never been done before in any colony. Many years after Toussaint Louverture, Haiti would go on to sign an agreement with France and the United States granting them special trade privileges. This would have never been allowed during Toussaint Louverture’s reign. Under Toussaint, the country’s ports were open only to those who gave St. Domingue the most advantages. The money generated during this revitalization of the economy allowed Toussaint Louverture to purchase weapons to reinforce the territory’s defense. He knew France would not simply sit back and allow this to happen.

Military

In 1792, Toussaint made his first act as a soldier under the order of Biassou, the commander of a squad in the Spanish military. Note that Spain, in its fight against France, promised it would give anyone who fought for them freedom and property. Toussaint began as a medicine man for the Spanish military, and quickly began moving up the ranks. He came to have his own unit. When he left the Spanish military to join the French military in 1794, all of his soldiers went with him. His troops consisted of between 3,000 and 4,000 soldiers. Toussaint’s soldiers always proved to be the best trained and most disciplined. From 1798 on, Toussaint showed an obsession with militarizing the colony. In principle, Toussaint’s army should have belonged to France, but Toussaint was always clear that his army would behave as long as France behaved.

In 1801, Napoléon Bonaparte decided to send over the French military to reestablish slavery in St. Domingue. He selected his brother in law, General Victor Emmanuel Leclerc, to head this expedition. This was the biggest military expedition Napoléon had ever sent to fight overseas. When Toussaint noticed the warships lined up on his shores, he told his troops that the time had come, “We are about to confront a coalition that is against liberty. Therefore, I do not want to take on half measures. We will live free or we will die.”

The French troops arrived with only two months worth of provisions. The French had no idea what kind of army they were about to confront. The fight ended up lasting for two years. Toussaint led the first  few months of the fight, but they captured him after he was betrayed. They transported him to France where he died in prison on April 7, 1803. The rest of the army took up the torch.

Conclusion

The General Counsel of the United States in Cap Haitian, Edward Stevens, who followed Toussaint closely shared what he was able to observe during this period. He said “Louverture is taking on measures slowly but surely. He is putting on an appearance for a little while. However, as soon as France meddles too deeply in the colony’s affairs, he will remove the mask from his face and declare independence.”

It is true that Toussaint never wrote or openly declared that he wanted the country to become independent from France. It was not in his character to show his hand completely. Even today, as experts continue to research, they are discovering affairs Toussaint was implicated in without his name ever being explicitly stated.

The constant sermons of France as the mother country was a strategy that Toussaint used to put everybody on the same page. With a constitution, an autonomous diplomacy, a strong economy, and an army, St. Domingue stopped being a colony that France could control from a distance. In reality, these four elements showed that France lost this colony as far back as 1801.

In reality, these four elements showed that France lost this colony as far back as 1801.